Prolonged occupation: An analysis of obligations of the occupying powers in an occupied territory and contemporary challenges
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47264/idea.jhsms/2.1.3Keywords:
International Humanitarian Law (IHL), International Human Rights Law (IHRL), belligerent occupation, prolonged occupation, occupied territory, civilian protection, obligations of occupying powers, maintenance and public order, challengesAbstract
The International Law of Occupation (ILOC) regulates all kinds of occupation. However, the other bodies of law, such as International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and International Human Rights Law (IHRL), also apply in times of occupation. These bodies of law create obligations especially on states and, in particular, on the occupying powers. The presumption is that occupations are temporary in nature, but why prolonged occupations? In this context, this article focuses on the legal aspects of belligerent prolonged occupation. It evaluates the international legal framework and sources of belligerent prolonged occupation. While the protection of civilians is central to the bulk of texts of international treaties and the occupiers have obligations, it investigates the obligations of the occupying powers in occupied territory by analysing the existing legal framework under IHL and IHRL. Further, it also discusses the provisions of ILOC. The argument developed throughout this article is that the occupying powers are under humanitarian and human rights obligations to guarantee the best possible protection of the rights of occupied people in the case of prolonged occupation in particular, and adding that IHL and IHRL apply in complementarity in situations of prolonged occupation. The qualitative method is followed for this article, and existing literature on the subject has been analysed.
References
American Insurance Company v. Canter, 26 U.S. 511, 1828.
Azarova, V. (2017). Israel's unlawfully prolonged occupation: Consequences under an integrated legal framework. European Council on Foreign Relations.
Benvenisti, E. (2008). The origins of the concept of belligerent occupation. Law and History Review, 26(3), 621-648. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0738248000002595
Benvenisti, E. (1993). The International law of occupation. Princeton University.
Benvenisti, E. (2003). Water conflicts during the occupation of Iraq. The American Journal of International Law, 97(4), 860-872. https://doi.org/10.2307/3133685
Bhuta, N. (2005). The antinomies of transformative occupation. European Journal of International Law, 16(4), 721-740. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chi145
Convention for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field, 1949. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3694.html
Convention for the amelioration of the condition of wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea, 1949. https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/GC-II-EN.pdf
Convention relative to the treatment of prisoners of war, 12 August 1949. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c8.html
Convention relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war, 1949. https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/atrocity-crimes/Doc.33_GC-IV-EN.pdf
Fleming v. Page, 50 U.S. 603, 612, 13 276, 1850.
Graber, D. A. (1949). The development of the law of belligerent occupation, 1863-1914: A historical survey. Columbia University.
Guelff, R., & Roberts, A. (Eds.). (2000). Documents on the laws of war. Oxford University.
Human Rights Watch briefing paper. (2003). International Humanitarian Law issues in a potential war in Iraq. http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/arms/iraq0202003.htm
International covenant on civil and political rights, 1966.
Kelly, M. J. (1999). Restoring and maintaining order in complex peace operations: The search for a legal framework. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Lemkin, R. (2008). Axis rule in occupied Europe: Laws of occupation, analysis of government, proposals for redress. The Lawbook Exchange Limited.
Lieber Code. (1863). The instructions for the government of armies of the United States in the field. General Order No: 100. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lieber.asp
Manual F. (1956). The law of land warfare. Field Manual No. 27-10, Department of the Army. Washington D.C. http://www.combatindex.com/store/field_man/sample/fm_27-10.pdf
Nurick, L., & Barrett, R. W. (1946). Legality of Guerrilla forces under the laws of war. American Journal of International Law, 40(3), 563-583. https://doi.org/10.2307/2193930
Opinion and judgement of trial chamber II of 17 May, 1997. The prosecutor of The tribunal against Dusko Tadic, Case No. It-94-1-I
Report of Human Rights Watch. (2003). The war in Iraq and International Humanitarian Law. https://www.hrw.org/legacy/campaigns/iraq/ihlfaq.pdf
Roberts, A. (1984). What is a military occupation? British Yearbook of International Law, 55(1), 249-305.
Sofaer, A. D. (1988). Agora: The US decision not to ratify protocol I to the Geneva Conventions on the Protection of War Victims (Cont’d). American Journal of International Law, 82(4), 784-787. https://doi.org/10.2307/2203512
The Hague Regulations, 1907.
The UN Security Council Resolution No: 1483, 2003.
United States v. Rice, 17 U.S. 4 Wheat. 246 (1819)
UN basic principles on the use of force and firearms by law enforcement officials. http://www.hri.ca/uninfo/treaties/43.shtml
Vienna Convention on the law of treaties, 1969. https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/1_1_1969.pdf
Von Glahn, G. (1957). The occupation of enemy territory: a commentary on the law and practice of belligerent occupation. University of Minnesota.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Sardar M. A. W. K. Arif
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Please click here for details about the Licensing and Copyright policies of IDEA-PG.
